**Understanding Identity in Culture: Structuralism and Post-Structuralism** When we think about who we are and how we fit into society, two important ideas come up: structuralism and post-structuralism. These ideas help us understand identity in a deeper way. They challenge the traditional views of who we are, how we act, and where we belong. ### What is Structuralism? Structuralism is all about how language and culture work together to shape our identities. Here are some key ideas: - **Language Shapes Thought**: Structuralists believe that our language influences how we think. The meaning of words comes from their relationships with each other, not just the words themselves. This means our identity is built through language and stories we hear in our culture. - **Binary Oppositions**: This idea focuses on pairs that are opposites, like male/female or nature/culture. These opposites help shape how we see the world and ourselves. For example, gender can often be viewed simply as male or female, which limits other identities. - **Cultural Codes**: According to structuralists, we learn patterns in culture that help us understand who we are. These "codes" guide us in shaping our identities based on what we learn from society. ### What are the Limitations of Structuralism? - **Fixed View of Identity**: One main criticism of structuralism is that it sees identity as unchanging. It doesn't fully recognize that identities can be fluid and change with different situations. - **Ignoring Personal Choice**: Structuralism tends to focus on large structures in society and might overlook how individuals can challenge or change these structures. ### Moving to Post-Structuralism Post-structuralism came about to question and refine the ideas of structuralism. Here are some important aspects: - **Changeable Meaning**: Post-structuralists believe meaning is not set; it can change and shift. This means our identities can be unstable too. - **Importance of Context**: Post-structuralism suggests that our identities are formed based on the surroundings and time we live in. Different places and cultures can create different identities. - **Intertextuality**: This concept explains that different texts, like books and cultural pieces, are connected. Our identity is influenced by these connections, rather than being a single, fixed idea. ### Implications for Identity in Culture 1. **Multiple Identities**: Post-structuralism acknowledges that people can have many identities, such as racial, gender, or social class. These can interact and overlap, making each person's experience unique. 2. **Changing Identities**: Our identities are not set in stone; they can adapt and evolve based on our experiences and contexts. This idea reflects the diverse experiences in multicultural societies. 3. **Role of Power**: Thinkers like Foucault point out that power influences how identities are shaped. Some identities may be accepted and celebrated, while others are marginalized. This raises important questions about who gets to define identities. 4. **Cultural Stories**: Both structuralism and post-structuralism highlight that the stories we tell—whether about ourselves or shared in our culture—play a big role in shaping our identities. Myths and shared memories are essential for understanding who we are. ### Comparing Perspectives on Identity - **Structuralism** sees identity as formed by language and cultural codes, focusing on stability. - **Post-Structuralism**, on the other hand, views identity as dynamic and multi-layered, shaped by changing contexts and the influences of power. ### Real-World Applications in Cultural Studies In cultural studies, we can see how these ideas play out in real life: - **Queer Theory**: Post-structuralism has helped shape queer theory, which views gender and sexual identities as fluid instead of fixed. It promotes a spectrum of identities instead of just two categories. - **Representation**: Both theories encourage us to look at how identities are shown in media and art. This examination can reveal stereotypes and biases in society. - **Globalization**: As cultures mix and affect each other, understanding the complexity of identities becomes crucial. Identities can change through globalization and migration. ### Conclusion Together, structuralism and post-structuralism help us explore identity in culture. Structuralism gives us a foundation, showing how language and culture shape identities. Post-structuralism adds depth by emphasizing change, diversity, and the role of power in defining who we are. These ideas encourage us to appreciate the many identities in every culture and to understand the rich experiences that make up human life. By looking through these lenses, we can deepen our understanding of ourselves and the world around us.
Feminist cultural criticism helps us see the hidden biases in art and literature. It helps us understand how gender affects the creation and understanding of cultural works. By looking closely at stories and how women are shown in different pieces, feminist criticism reveals the inequalities that often go unnoticed. One important idea in feminist cultural criticism is about representation. This means looking at who gets to tell stories and how they tell them. In many stories, we often find characters like the “damsel in distress” or the “femme fatale.” These characters usually show a narrow and stereotypical idea of what it means to be a woman. These stereotypes are not just character choices; they reflect larger social attitudes towards women, reinforcing traditional gender roles. By analyzing these portrayals, feminist critics show how they take away women’s power and reduce their complexity, shaping how society expects women to act. Feminist criticism also looks at the power between authors and their characters. Take historical writers like Virginia Woolf or Mary Wollstonecraft. Their works expressed their personal experiences and also pushed back against unfair structures in society. By studying these writings, we can see the challenges women faced in being recognized as serious writers and thinkers, as well as the sexism that often silenced female voices in literature. Additionally, feminist cultural criticism questions the biases in institutions that keep women from being included in many cultural stories. Many female authors find it hard to get the same recognition as their male peers. This can lead to a one-sided view of literary history. By pointing out this gap, feminist critics call for a re-evaluation of literary history to include a wider variety of voices and perspectives. Understanding these diverse viewpoints enriches how we see both the past and current conversations about gender in literature. In visual arts, feminist criticism also explores hidden biases. The idea of the “male gaze” suggests that women are often shown as objects for men to enjoy visually. Art that follows this trend supports traditional male views, reducing women to mere subjects and not showing them as empowered individuals. By examining the male gaze, feminist critics reveal how these views affect how people interpret art and shape society's ideas about beauty, femininity, and power. Feminist cultural criticism also looks at how certain cultural practices reinforce inequalities. For example, when celebrating movements in art, we often highlight male artists while ignoring important contributions from female artists. This oversight not only skews our view of art history but also supports a culture where women’s work is often seen as less important. A feminist critique aims to spotlight these overlooked artists and seek their rightful place in art history. The impact of feminist cultural criticism goes beyond just books and art; it also applies to popular culture. If we look at recent movies or TV shows through a feminist lens, we can see outdated stereotypes and unchallenged gender roles still appearing, even today. By critically analyzing these forms of culture, feminist scholars can push for change and advocate for stories that show a more fair reality. Moreover, intersectionality is a key part of feminist cultural criticism. This idea emphasizes how different social identities—like race, class, and sexuality—intersect to impact people’s experiences of unfair treatment or privilege. This deeper understanding allows for a more complete critique of culture, recognizing the many layers of identity that are often ignored in a simple male-female view. In conclusion, feminist cultural criticism is a strong tool for uncovering hidden biases in art and literature. By questioning representation, power dynamics, institutional biases, and intersectionality, feminist critics challenge the stories that shape our society. When we engage with art and literature from this perspective, we can better see how these works reflect and maintain issues related to gender. This approach calls for more inclusivity and fairness in cultural creation and understanding. The insights from feminist criticism can lead to richer discussions about the arts, challenging harmful stereotypes and making space for different voices to be heard and valued.
**How Media and Culture Work Together** Media and culture are closely linked. They influence each other in ways that help us understand what culture is all about. **Media Reflects Society** Popular media, like TV shows, movies, and music, acts like a mirror for society. It shows our values, beliefs, and what we see as normal. For example, these forms of media tell stories about things like identity, race, gender, and class. A great example is the TV show *Sex and the City*, which changed how people viewed women’s empowerment and city life in the early 2000s. This shows how media helps shape conversations about culture. **Culture Influences Media** On the flip side, culture also shapes what we see in media. Local art, stories, and traditions often show up in popular content. For instance, hip-hop music has not only become mainstream but has also highlighted important social issues and identity. This shows an exciting back-and-forth where cultural expressions inspire media, and then media shares these cultural stories back with society. **Globalization Blends Cultures** As the world becomes more connected, different ideas and cultures mix together in media. This creates new and interesting forms of media that appeal to bigger audiences. A good example is the Brazilian movie *City of God*, which tells local stories while also being loved around the world. This shows how local narratives can hit home with people globally. **Media and Personal Identity** How we consume popular media is important for forming our identities. People often connect with media that reflects their own experiences or dreams. This connection helps build a sense of community. Social media also plays a big role in this. It allows people to shape their own identities based on what media they choose to engage with. **In Conclusion** In short, the relationship between popular media and cultural expression is crucial in understanding culture. Media both imitates and shapes cultural identity, capturing the stories and experiences of society. As culture keeps evolving, the role of media in showing and influencing cultural values becomes even more important. Understanding this link is key to studying culture more deeply.
### How Representation Affects Identity Representation is really important in shaping who we are based on our culture. I've noticed this in both my studies and my own life. It’s amazing how the images, symbols, and stories we see every day can change how we think about ourselves and other people. ### How Representation Works 1. **Seeing Ourselves**: When different identities are shown (or not shown) in media, it affects how society thinks. For example, when people from underrepresented communities see themselves in movies or on TV, it makes them feel valid and recognized. But when they aren’t shown, it can make them feel invisible or push harmful stereotypes. 2. **Power and Control**: Who tells the stories matters a lot. Those who create movies, books, or online content have a big say in what becomes "normal." This can make people feel like they have to fit into certain images, which affects how they see themselves and interact with others. 3. **Understanding Symbols**: Representation isn’t just about showing images; it’s also about what those images mean to people. For example, a rainbow flag can mean pride and belonging for many people. This shows how positive representation can help build strong identities. ### Identity Formation and Representation 1. **Growing and Changing Identity**: Identity isn’t fixed; it grows based on how we see ourselves in media. The stories we read and watch help us understand who we are. This back-and-forth between personal and cultural stories is key to understanding our identities. 2. **Different Experiences**: Identity is complicated. Many factors, like race, gender, and social class, mix together to affect how we feel about representation. For example, a Black woman may see different images in media compared to a white woman. These different experiences show that context matters a lot. 3. **Taking a Stand**: People don’t just accept what they see; they push back against it. For instance, lots of people use social media to challenge stereotypes they see in traditional media. This can help build community and encourage new ways of understanding oneself that go against the usual narratives. ### Conclusion Overall, representation is a powerful way to shape identity in our culture. It influences how we see ourselves and others, affects social norms, and helps create feelings of belonging or separation. As we engage with different media, we should be aware of these effects. By understanding how representation and identity connect, we can appreciate the diverse experiences of individuals and groups. This awareness can inspire us to push for more positive and varied representations that reflect the richness of human identity.
Intertextuality is an important idea that helps us understand how people from marginalized communities are shown in culture, like in movies and books. This concept helps us see how different stories, symbols, and meanings come together. It makes it easier to talk about identity, power, and the social issues that affect these communities. So, what is intertextuality? It’s about how different texts are connected. It shows that the way we understand marginalized communities is not just one story but part of a larger conversation that includes history and society. For example, if we watch a movie about an indigenous community, we might notice connections to other films, history, or current social issues. These links help us understand if the movie reinforces old stereotypes or offers a deeper view into those people's lives. One of the key things intertextuality does is challenge simple stories. Marginalized groups often are seen in a one-dimensional way, like stereotypes. But by referencing other texts, we can show the many different voices and perspectives in these communities. For instance, a documentary about immigrant experiences might include references to books or personal stories that reveal the rich and varied identities within these groups. This way, intertextuality helps us see a fuller picture. Another important point is about who tells the stories. Who is allowed to share the experiences of marginalized communities? When powerful voices dominate, they can drown out the real stories of those communities. Intertextuality helps us look at these issues by showing how powerful texts can shape or hide minority voices. For example, if there's a popular film about LGBTQ+ experiences, it might reference ideas from queer theory and the actual stories of LGBTQ+ individuals. This brings attention to the need for representation from within these communities rather than just outside viewpoints. Intertextuality also plays a big role in how people react to cultural texts. How we understand any story is influenced by our past experiences with other stories. This means intertextuality helps us remember cultural moments that shape how we view things today. For instance, if a new TV show has a Black main character, viewers might think back to previous TV shows they’ve watched, both good and bad. These memories can change how they feel about the new character. If past characters were poorly represented, they might be more critical of the new one. On the other hand, if previous characters were positive, people might celebrate the new show. This reception doesn’t just stop with personal views; it can also shape how society sees marginalized communities. Media texts with strong intertextual links can spark discussions and change public opinions. For example, when a famous musician releases a song that mentions civil rights movements, it can get people talking about racism and social justice. These references to past struggles become powerful symbols that connect our memories and current activism. Intertextuality can also empower marginalized communities. By engaging with popular culture and reinterpreting mainstream stories, they can take back their identities and assert their voices. This can happen through art, writing, or performances that reference well-known texts but give them new meanings. For example, socially conscious rappers often combine traditional storytelling with their lyrics, honoring hip-hop while connecting it to their roots. This pushes back against stereotypes and reshapes the stories about their lives. However, it’s important to recognize that intertextuality has its limits too. While it allows for different interpretations, it can also lead to misunderstandings if not approached carefully. If critics rely too much on references without understanding the history and context of marginalized communities, it can result in a shallow view that misses the real depth of their experiences. This shows how crucial it is to place intertextual connections within a framework that uplifts the voices and stories of those communities. In cultural studies, we see that intertextuality is closely related to semiotics, which is the study of signs and symbols. Representation is all about how meanings are made through these signs. Intertextuality helps us see that these signs can be understood in many ways based on their connections to other texts. For example, the symbols used in protest movements often carry historical meaning that resonates with marginalized communities. The signs in these stories are not just images; they are active parts of a larger narrative about social and political issues. In the end, intertextuality is key for understanding how marginalized communities are represented in cultural studies. It connects different texts and allows for conversations about identity and power. By questioning dominant stories and highlighting diverse voices, intertextuality helps us reflect on how these texts are received in society. But we must approach this exploration critically, keeping in mind the importance of context, real experiences, and authenticity. By engaging with intertextuality, we celebrate the richness of these communities while challenging systems that try to silence them. This not only helps us learn more about culture but also supports a fairer conversation about representation in our society.
Language and conversation are very important in shaping cultural identities in postcolonial societies. These identities are created through a mix of communication, power, and stories from the past that come from colonial experiences. First, language acts as a way to push back against colonial control. In many postcolonial communities, bringing back native languages is a strong way to affirm their culture. For example, books written in local languages show different worldviews and experiences that colonial languages often hide. Using local dialects helps people express identities that resist the one-size-fits-all approach of colonial culture. Second, conversation helps build and shape cultural identity. Scholars like Edward Said and Homi K. Bhabha point out how language influences how we see "the Other." Through different conversations, voices that have been ignored can challenge the stereotypes created by colonial powers. This helps create hybrid identities that mix elements from both local and colonial cultures. Also, the changing nature of conversation in postcolonial settings shows how identities are always evolving. As societies experience globalization, new media outlets allow different forms of expression, letting voices from less powerful backgrounds join important discussions. This shows that postcolonial identities are not fixed; they change over time through constant interactions shaped by language and discussion. In summary, to truly understand how cultural identities are formed in postcolonial contexts, we need to recognize the roles of language and conversation. These elements are crucial for empowering individuals and communities as they seek independence and the ability to express themselves.
### Understanding Semiotics and Its Importance Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols and how we use or understand them. This study can help us find hidden meanings in pop culture, like movies, ads, and music. In cultural studies, looking at these signs helps us understand society better. When we explore cultural items through semiotics, we can see deeper meanings beneath what’s on the surface. This reveals important issues about power, identity, and beliefs. ### Why Some People Doubt Semiotics: - Some critics say semiotics can simplify complex cultural issues by making them just about signs. - The way we interpret signs can be very personal, which makes it hard to have one clear meaning. - Sometimes, focusing too much on signs makes us forget the important history and context behind cultural texts. - Semiotics can overlook the emotions and feelings that cultural items create, preferring a strict analysis instead. - This strong focus on signs might ignore real-life experiences and realities, creating a gap between theory and actual practice. ### Why Semiotics is Important: - Semiotics gives us a strong way to understand the many meanings in cultural texts and how those meanings are created. - By recognizing how signs work, we can discover the deeper beliefs that shape stories in culture and how these stories reflect and affect our society. - Using semiotics helps us think critically about how identities are formed in popular culture. - Through semiotics, we realize that pop culture is a lively space where meanings are challenged, negotiated, and changed. It emphasizes how audiences actively interpret those meanings. - The connections between signs show us the power structures that exist in culture, exposing systems of control and resistance in society. ### Exploring Semiotics in Culture Semiotics teaches us that the relationship between signs (what we see) and what they mean can be random. This idea helps us understand that cultural texts don't just show reality; they actually help create it. For example, think about how gender is shown in ads. Advertisements use signs—like images and words—to keep certain gender roles alive. When ads show women in typical home roles, they're reflecting and reinforcing traditional expectations about gender. By using semiotics, we can analyze these images and see how they shape ideas about what it means to be feminine or masculine. Semiotics also looks at the cultural rules and codes that tell us how to interpret signs. Knowing these codes helps us see how meanings can change. For instance, the color red might mean love in one situation but danger in another. By studying these meaning changes, we understand how cultural texts communicate complex ideas and feelings. Another important idea in semiotics is intertextuality—this is when different texts reference or relate to one another. Pop culture texts don’t just exist alone; they’re part of a larger conversation in society. For instance, a movie might take ideas from a famous book or earlier films, changing them in new ways. Semiotic analysis helps us explore these relationships and understand how texts interact with each other. Moreover, semiotics highlights that signs can have many meanings. This variety allows for different interpretations based on personal experiences and cultural backgrounds. For example, a famous person might mean empowerment to some people but privilege to others. This variability shows why context is crucial in semiotic analysis. Semiotic analysis can also reveal how cultural texts perform or challenge social realities. Judith Butler’s idea of gender performativity suggests that our gender identities come from what we do and not from inherent traits. Looking at pop culture through this lens lets us see how media supports or challenges traditional ideas. For example, a TV show with non-binary characters can challenge the strict ideas of gender, pushing audiences to rethink their own beliefs about identity. When analyzing culture, semiotics is critical to understanding power dynamics. By examining how signs work in cultures, we can see how cultural stories might support or challenge oppression. For instance, anti-racist groups often use semiotic strategies to fight against dominant stories, reclaiming symbols that have historically marginalized them. Using semiotic analysis here helps us understand how these movements reshape cultural texts to challenge unfair beliefs and promote justice. Semiotics also makes us think about how audiences play a role in creating meaning. While creators make cultural texts, it's the audience's interpretations that shape the experience of meaning. This focus invites a deeper look into reception theory, where we notice that audiences actively shape meanings based on who they are. By recognizing this, we can create more inclusive analyses that see the role of diverse audiences in cultural conversations. ### Conclusion In summary, semiotics is an essential tool for uncovering hidden meanings in popular culture. Even though some people criticize it for being too deterministic, the semiotic approach remains a powerful way to analyze culture. It helps us see the complicated ways in which representations are built and understood. By looking at the relationship between signs, context, and audience responses, we can better grasp how popular culture influences views on society, identity, and power. Semiotics invites us to think critically about our world and the cultural expressions we encounter. Ignoring semiotics in cultural studies would mean missing out on its power to provoke meaningful discussions about our cultural landscape.
### Understanding Cultural Representation and Its Impact Cultural codes of representation are important tools for challenging long-standing social norms. When we talk about representation in culture, we mean how people and groups are shown in different forms of media. This can include movies, TV shows, and art. By looking at how these representations work, we can understand their deeper meanings. Instead of seeing representation as something fixed, it helps to think of it as a process that can change. This allows us to explore how cultural codes can shake up traditional beliefs, question dominant stories, and open new spaces for conversation and identity. ### Key Ideas: Signs and Cultural Codes At the heart of understanding representation is semiotics. This is the study of signs and symbols—like images or words—and how they communicate ideas. In culture, these signs are part of a bigger system of cultural codes that shape their meanings. When we say "representation," we are talking about more than just showing reality. It also influences how we think and feel. For example, if certain groups are always shown negatively in media, those images can strengthen harmful stereotypes. However, media that challenges these stereotypes can help change people's views and societal norms. ### How Cultural Representation Challenges Norms Cultural representation can challenge social norms in several ways: 1. **Counter-Representation**: One way to challenge norms is by showing different images of underrepresented groups. For example, when TV shows depict women in leadership roles, it contests the idea that they should always be in supportive roles. This helps people rethink their beliefs about gender. 2. **Questioning Gender Norms**: In many societies, traditional views of gender can shape our values. Narratives that include LGBTQ+ experiences challenge these norms, broadening how we think about gender and sexuality. Shows and movies that feature LGBTQ+ characters help promote acceptance and diversity. 3. **Appropriation vs. Appreciation**: We can also look at the difference between cultural appropriation and appreciation. Media that accurately represents marginalized voices can disrupt dominant viewpoints. For instance, films that tell Indigenous or Black stories provide real representations that challenge mainstream narratives. 4. **Art as Protest**: Visual art has often been a way to push back against social norms. From graffiti to gallery exhibits, art can tackle big issues like racism and inequality. Movements like Feminist Art use representation to fight back and reclaim their stories. 5. **Body Positivity**: Representation also includes how bodies are shown in media. Celebrating diverse body types can change beauty standards and promote inclusivity, especially in fashion. ### How Representation Can Change Social Norms Representation can challenge social norms through various methods: - **Strengthening Identity**: When people see themselves in media, it helps them feel they belong. Positive representation can affirm the experiences of marginalized communities. - **Shaking Up Expectations**: When we see complex portrayals that go against stereotypes, it can make us reconsider our views. This “cognitive dissonance” forces viewers to think about what they previously believed. - **Creating New Stories**: Representation can help develop new narratives that contest the norm. By sharing different histories and futures, cultural texts can inspire audiences to think about changing traditional roles. - **Building Empathy**: Stories can create emotional connections. By showing characters with diverse experiences, representations can encourage audiences to reconsider their biases and foster understanding. ### Real-Life Examples of Cultural Representation Here are some examples that show how cultural representation works: #### 1. Film: "Moonlight" The film "Moonlight" is a powerful example of how representation challenges stereotypes, especially around Black masculinity and sexuality. - **Breaking Stereotypes**: Rather than showcasing Black men as just tough figures, the film highlights their emotional layers. This encourages discussions around race, gender, and sexuality. - **Fostering Dialogue**: By following the main character’s life journey, "Moonlight" invites viewers to talk about societal expectations of masculinity and the struggles of queer identities, especially in communities of color. #### 2. Television: "Pose" The show "Pose" has made a significant impact on how we view race and gender identity. - **Power of Visibility**: The series features the largest number of transgender actors in leading roles. This reclaims the stories of the LGBTQ+ community, especially transgender women of color, who have often been overlooked. - **Cultural Activism**: "Pose" tackles serious issues like discrimination and the HIV/AIDS crisis, aligning with activism that promotes acceptance and understanding. #### 3. Literature: "The Hate U Give" Angie Thomas’ book "The Hate U Give" addresses important topics like race and social justice. - **Giving Voice**: The main character’s story highlights the challenges faced by many in marginalized communities, helping readers connect with experiences that might be very different from their own. - **Inspiring Activism**: This novel has sparked conversations about race and social justice, showing how literature can motivate real-world activism. ### Looking Ahead: The Future of Representation Cultural representation has a complex role in challenging social norms. As media evolves, the need for diverse and genuine stories becomes even more important. The goal is not just to make more diverse representations but to ensure these images resonate with people. This can lead to personal reflection and broader conversations in society. As culture changes, it’s essential for creators to work towards inclusive spaces where everyone’s voice can be heard. By doing this, we can address complicated issues of identity and work towards a fairer society, paving the way for future generations to express themselves freely.
Ideological critique helps us understand the deeper meanings in popular culture. Here’s how it works: - **Finding Hidden Messages**: It lets us discover the secret ideas behind movies, music, and ads. This shows us what they say about how power works in society. - **Spotting Important Values**: We learn which values are being encouraged or questioned, like buying things we don’t need or traditional roles for men and women. - **Thinking About Our Own Beliefs**: It asks us to think about our own beliefs and how they are influenced by the culture around us. Basically, ideological critique helps us see how popular culture reflects the ideas in our society. It encourages us to think critically and be more aware of what we consume.
Cultural hybridity is an important idea in cultural globalization, and it really affects social movements around the world. So, what is cultural hybridity? It means mixing different cultural elements to create new identities and forms. This mixing can be both a challenge and a helpful tool for social movements everywhere. ### Key Points: 1. **Diverse Group Collaborations**: Hybridity helps different groups come together and work as a team. For example, the global environmental movement has combined traditional practices from indigenous people with modern activism. This makes their message richer and more welcoming to everyone. 2. **Bouncing Back and Adjusting**: Hybridity helps social movements adjust to different situations. Take the Black Lives Matter movement, for example. It mixes local cultures with global strategies to connect with its supporters in various places. 3. **Standing Against Dominance**: Cultural hybridity can also be a way to push back against dominant ideas. For instance, the LGBTQ+ rights movement often combines traditional cultural aspects with modern advocacy. This creates meaningful symbols of strength and resistance. 4. **Using Digital Platforms**: The rise of online communication has really boosted hybrid cultures. Now, global social movements can share messages that connect with people everywhere. A great example is the #MeToo campaign. In short, cultural hybridity adds more depth to global social movements. It promotes inclusivity, helps groups adapt, and provides ways to resist cultural sameness.