**10. How Can Countries Use Trade Agreements for Sustainable Development Goals?** Trade agreements are important for helping countries reach their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These agreements help boost trade while also caring for the environment, promoting fairness, and supporting economic growth. Here are some ways countries can use trade agreements: **1. Adding SDGs to Trade Agreements** Countries can make sure their trade agreements include SDGs to help guide their actions. This can involve: - **Environmental Standards**: Making sure trade rules include promises to protect the environment, like the Paris Agreement, which aims to keep global temperature rise under 2 degrees Celsius. - **Labor Rights**: Including rules that support fair treatment for workers, matching with SDG 8, which focuses on decent work and economic growth. For example, over 90% of regional trade agreements have sustainable development goals in them, according to the United Nations. **2. Supporting Green Technologies and Renewable Energy** Trade agreements can help countries share eco-friendly technologies and move towards clean energy. The global market for renewable energy is expected to be worth $2.15 trillion by 2025. Countries can: - **Remove Tariffs on Eco-Friendly Products**: Lowering or removing taxes on things like solar panels and wind turbines can help grow the green economy. Multilateral agreements, like the World Trade Organization's "Environmental Goods Agreement," aim to remove taxes on 54 green products. This shows a worldwide focus on sustainability. **3. Promoting Fair Growth** Trade agreements can be created to ensure that everyone benefits from trade. This is especially important for those who are often left out. Countries can: - **Help Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)**: Trade rules can provide support for SMEs, which are important for economic growth. In the European Union, SMEs make up 99% of all businesses and employ about 67% of workers. By making it easier for these businesses to reach international markets, trade agreements can help reduce inequality, in line with SDG 10. **4. Supporting Sustainable Farming and Food Security** Trade agreements can help promote sustainable farming practices, which are crucial for achieving SDG 2 (Zero Hunger). Countries can: - **Encourage Sustainable Food Products**: By removing tariffs on organic and sustainably produced foods, countries can expand their agricultural exports and ensure food security. Globally, with sustainability efforts, the agricultural sector could grow by $1.7 trillion in value by 2030. This highlights the connection between trade and food security. **5. Keeping Track of Progress** Having strong ways to monitor and check trade agreements can help ensure sustainable practices are followed. Countries can: - **Use Trade Incentives**: Create rewards for countries that meet sustainability goals, which could come with trade benefits. Regular checks can help track how well countries are sticking to their SDG commitments in trade agreements. **Conclusion** Countries have many ways to use trade agreements to support sustainable development. By including SDGs in their trade rules, encouraging fair growth, and focusing on clean technologies, nations can gain economic benefits while also meeting global sustainability goals. Using these agreements wisely will not only boost economic growth but also help create a sustainable future for everyone.
Trade agreements play a big role in how countries work with each other economically. But making these agreements work is often tough because of different challenges. ### Tough Negotiations Creating trade agreements isn’t easy. Countries have different needs based on their own situations. For example, one country might want lower taxes on goods to sell more in other countries, while another country might want to protect its local businesses from outside competition. This back-and-forth can lead to agreements that don’t really help anyone. Plus, understanding international rules and different regulations can make things even harder, often causing talks to stall. ### Implementation Problems Even after countries agree and sign the deals, putting them into action can be tricky. Countries might have trouble aligning their rules, causing inconsistencies. For instance, if one country has strict environmental rules and another has loose ones, it can lead to unfair competition. Smaller nations, which may not have many resources, can struggle to meet the standards set in the agreements, leading to arguments that can hurt relationships. ### Economic Gaps Trade agreements can make economic problems worse, both inside countries and between them. Usually, larger and richer countries benefit the most, leaving developing countries behind. This can create a dependency where poorer nations rely on selling goods to richer countries, which doesn’t help them grow. Additionally, even within a country, the benefits of trade can be spread unevenly, causing resentment among people who feel overlooked. ### Political Tensions The state of international politics can also make trade agreements more complicated. If tensions rise between countries, they might create rules to protect their own markets or impose penalties on each other, which can mess up existing agreements. This uncertainty can make businesses hesitant to invest or expand, slowing down potential growth. ### Finding Solutions To tackle these problems, countries need to work together more thoughtfully, considering everyone’s needs in negotiations. Setting up systems to monitor and enforce the agreements can help ensure fairness. It’s also important to create flexible frameworks that can adjust to economic changes and political situations. Investing in skills and resources in developing countries can help them join the global trade system more effectively, leading to fairer benefits for all. Finally, promoting open discussions between countries can help reduce tensions and encourage cooperation instead of competition. In summary, while trade agreements can positively affect how countries interact economically, they come with many challenges. To overcome these difficulties, it’s crucial to take active steps and understand the complexities of global trade.
Navigating the tricky rules and regulations of different countries is a lot like wandering through a maze. Each country has its own set of rules that can make it hard for businesses to trade internationally. These unique rules can create confusion and lead to mistakes if businesses don’t plan carefully. Imagine you run a company that makes electronics in the United States. You want to sell your products in Europe, Asia, and Africa. At first, it sounds like a great chance to make more money. But soon, your team discovers that each region has different rules. These rules cover safety standards, how products should be packaged, and other requirements. The challenges are often not about taxes, but rather these complicated local regulations. To manage this tricky situation, businesses need to carefully learn about the rules in the countries they want to enter. This means doing thorough research on local laws and safety standards. Some regions may need special approvals, and not having the right documents can lead to delays, fines, or getting banned from selling products. Here are a few ways to gather information: 1. **Talk to Local Experts**: Hiring local consultants or legal experts can help a lot. They know the ins and outs of local rules and can help prepare the right documents. 2. **Use Government Resources**: Many governments have services to help businesses understand trade regulations. For example, the U.S. Commercial Service gives advice and support to businesses looking to export. 3. **Join Industry Associations**: Groups that focus on specific industries can offer networking opportunities. They often have helpful resources like guidelines and updates about changing rules. Once businesses understand the local rules, they need a solid plan to meet these standards. Planning carefully is key. A small mistake at this point can cause big problems in entering a new market and might hurt a company's reputation. Important parts of a compliance plan include: - **Making a Regulation Checklist**: Creating a checklist for each target market ensures that every compliance issue is looked at. This should cover things like certification needs, labeling rules, and environmental checks. - **Quality Control**: Having strong quality control processes helps keep products up to local standards. Testing products before selling them in a new market can prevent rejection or fines. - **Training Employees**: Staff involved in trading should get regular training on compliance. They need to know what could happen if they don’t follow the rules, which can include fines or being banned from selling. As businesses set up their compliance processes, they should be ready for changes in rules. Regulations can shift due to changes in politics, the economy, or social values. To stay ahead, companies can: - **Watch for Changes**: Getting updates on changing regulations can help businesses adapt quickly. A dedicated team can analyze how these changes might affect compliance. - **Build Relationships with Regulatory Bodies**: Having open communication with local agencies helps businesses understand expectations. Joining local industry groups can also lead to insights about upcoming changes. Besides preparing, businesses should also create a solid risk management plan. Not every product will easily get through the approval process, so companies need plans for when problems come up. This plan should include: - **Contingency Plans**: Businesses should be ready for delays in getting approvals. A good plan includes backup actions, like applying for temporary permits or changing marketing strategies while waiting. - **Compliance Insurance**: Companies might consider insurance to cover issues related to compliance disputes. This can help lessen financial impacts from fines or legal problems. - **Partnerships**: Working with local companies that know the rules well can help businesses enter new markets smoothly. Partnerships can make the process easier and strengthen market presence. Finally, the work doesn’t stop with just meeting regulations. Continuous monitoring and improvement are essential. Businesses should regularly check their compliance strategies by looking at: - **Performance Metrics**: Setting specific goals can help measure how well compliance is working. Metrics can include how long it takes to get certifications and how often compliance issues happen. - **Feedback**: Collecting opinions from customers and partners helps identify areas that need improvement. Insights from partners on the ground can be especially valuable. - **Learning from Competitors**: Seeing how other companies handle regulatory challenges can provide useful ideas for improving compliance. In conclusion, while understanding international regulations can seem overwhelming, businesses that put in the effort can reap big rewards. By researching local requirements, creating solid compliance plans, setting up risk management strategies, and committing to ongoing improvement, companies can become more competitive in global markets. They should view regulations not as roadblocks, but as opportunities for growth, better market access, and lasting success. In the world of global trade, being prepared, adaptable, and ready to tackle challenges is crucial.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is really important for helping countries trade fairly with one another. It's a global group that sets the rules for international trade. The main goal of the WTO is to keep markets open and lower trade barriers, which helps make trade fair for everyone involved. First, the WTO wants to make sure all countries play by the same rules. One way it does this is through something called the most-favored-nation (MFN) clause. This means if one country gets a good deal from another, all the other countries in the WTO must get the same deal. This stops unfair practices and helps ensure that no single country gets an unfair advantage over others. By making trade fairer, the WTO helps keep prices lower and gives consumers more choices. The WTO also creates a clear set of rules for countries to follow when they make trade agreements. This helps keep things open and honest because countries have to share their trade rules and stick to what everyone agrees on. If countries have a disagreement about trade, the WTO has a structured way to help them solve these issues. They use panels and an appeal system to treat both sides fairly. This way, the WTO helps prevent trade wars and encourages countries to follow the agreed-upon rules, keeping trade stable. Additionally, the WTO works hard to help developing countries join the global trade system. They know that these countries often face special challenges, like fewer resources and smaller markets. To help them, the WTO offers support and training, giving these nations the tools they need to trade better. They also have special rules to make sure these countries aren’t treated unfairly. For example, the Trade Facilitation Agreement helps simplify customs rules, making it easier for developing countries to sell their products. Moreover, the WTO pushes for trade liberalization, which means lowering tariffs and other obstacles to trade. When countries reduce tariffs, it makes the market more competitive and allows consumers to buy more products at lower prices. When tariffs go down, trade can increase, which can make the economy better for everyone in our connected world. Finally, the WTO works to make trade fairer for everyone. They focus on important issues like sustainability and ethical practices. By promoting fair labor standards and protecting the environment during trade talks, the WTO encourages countries to think about more than just making money. This focus on sustainable trade can change how countries do business, ensuring that everyone benefits while also protecting our planet. In summary, the World Trade Organization has a big job in making sure trade is fair among countries. Through rules about fairness, a way to solve disputes, support for developing countries, encouragement of lower trade barriers, and a focus on ethical practices, the WTO aims to create a fairer trading environment worldwide. It is a key part of international business, working to ensure that as trade grows, it does so in a fair and sustainable way.
The World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank are facing a lot of challenges today. These challenges come from changes in how countries trade and the shifting political and economic situations around the world. As these important organizations try to keep things stable and help economies grow, they run into problems that make it harder for them to do their jobs. One big problem for the WTO is the rise of countries putting their own interests first and creating barriers to trade. Countries that used to support free trade are now more likely to place tariffs, which are taxes on imports, and other limits. This often happens because of pressure from their own politics. A clear example of this is the trade issues between the United States and China, where new tariffs have led to more retaliation from both sides. This has caused disruptions in supply chains and slowed down global trade. As the WTO tries to help resolve these trade disputes, people are questioning its power and resources, wondering if it can really handle conflicts and get countries to follow the rules. The WTO also has a hard time with negotiations. The Doha Development Round started in 2001 but hasn't made much progress. This slow pace frustrates many countries, especially developing ones. When there isn't progress on important trade agreements, poorer countries feel left out, which can hurt the WTO's reputation. Some nations are even thinking about making trade deals outside of WTO rules. On the other hand, the IMF has its own challenges, especially with how it is structured and how it responds to economic crises. The IMF was created to help countries work together with their money and support balanced growth. However, some critics say that the way it makes decisions seems to favor richer countries. This can cause issues with developing countries that want a fair say in how money is lent. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, it became clear that the IMF struggled to support low-income countries that really needed financial help. The world is also changing quickly with new financial technologies and digital currencies, which raises questions about what the IMF's role should be. As more countries look into cryptocurrencies and decentralized finance, there is a growing need for international rules to manage these changes. If the IMF doesn’t adapt to these new technologies, it might lose its importance in the global financial scene. The World Bank is facing serious issues too, especially related to fairness and encouraging sustainable growth. Even though the World Bank tries to reduce poverty and help countries grow together, there are still big gaps between rich and poor countries. Problems like climate change, health emergencies, and social unrest worsen these issues. The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted these challenges even more, as the most vulnerable people often suffer the most, and the World Bank needs to act quickly to help. As countries work toward the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the way the World Bank finances projects is being closely watched. Many people want to see more creative financial solutions that fit local needs and focus on long-term outcomes. With the demand for support growing and resources being limited, there are big questions about whether the World Bank's traditional ways of lending are still effective. Additionally, politics on a global scale are making an impact on the World Bank’s work. As China grows its influence with projects like the Belt and Road Initiative, it challenges the existing balance largely maintained by Western countries. The World Bank needs to be careful as it tries to meet the needs of different countries while sticking to its mission of global development. All these challenges show that the WTO, IMF, and World Bank need to change and improve. Working better together and with others, like businesses and community groups, could help find creative solutions to urgent global problems. For example, using technology to share knowledge could help streamline decision-making and improve how they monitor and assess development projects. It’s also essential for these organizations to connect with emerging economies and listen to their views in their decision-making. By doing this, the WTO, IMF, and World Bank can create a fairer international economy that includes everyone. These efforts could increase their legitimacy and help them respond better to the fast-changing trade world. In short, the WTO, IMF, and World Bank are facing tough and varied challenges today. From the rise of protectionism to the need for changes in how they operate and the push for new solutions to inequality, these organizations need to adapt to stay effective. If they focus on working together, being inclusive, and embracing new ideas, they can tackle the modern challenges of global trade and make meaningful progress everywhere.
**How Geopolitical Events Affect Global Supply Chains** In today's world, global supply chains and logistics are influenced by major political events happening around the globe. These events can include changes in government, conflicts, and trade disagreements. When these things happen, they can affect how businesses move their goods and services internationally. To handle their supply chains, companies need to be flexible and adaptable. For example, think about a trade war between two powerful countries. When one country imposes tariffs (which are taxes on imports), it can make goods more expensive. This can disrupt the way businesses operate. A clear example is the trade conflict between the U.S. and China that began in 2018. The tariffs on many goods forced companies to rethink how they source their products. Some moved their factories to countries with lower tariffs, while others had to increase prices, impacting sales. When conflicts or political instability happen, businesses often face problems in their supply chains. For instance, ongoing crises in Eastern Europe or the Middle East can make shipping routes dangerous or inefficient. In these cases, companies might look for new places to source their products or set up backup suppliers in safer areas to reduce risks. This kind of planning helps protect them from unexpected disruptions caused by political issues. Besides conflicts, changes in laws can also greatly impact global logistics. For example, if new environmental rules come into play, companies must adjust to meet those standards. This could mean investing in cleaner technologies or changing how they transport goods. Similarly, if a country raises its minimum wage, production costs might go up, causing businesses to move their factories to places with lower wages. Geopolitical events can also affect ports and shipping routes, which are critical for global trade. Political problems can lead to blockades or strikes that disrupt supply chains. A clear example of this is the Suez Canal blockade in March 2021, which quickly showed how disruptions in important shipping routes can have global effects. This led to shipping delays and higher costs, forcing companies to rethink their logistics and inventory strategies. Moreover, the rise of nationalism—where countries prefer to buy locally rather than import goods—poses challenges for global supply chains. Policies encouraging local production can result in higher costs and fewer available goods. As a response, many companies are looking to "nearshore," meaning they want to move production closer to their main markets. This approach can help reduce shipping times and costs, while also meeting consumers' preferences for local products. New technologies are also important for how businesses adapt their supply chains during geopolitical changes. With better analytics and real-time tracking, companies can keep an eye on their operations and quickly respond to any disruptions. For example, artificial intelligence can help predict potential issues based on political events so businesses can take action ahead of time. Companies are using tools like blockchain for transparency and cybersecurity measures to protect their data. In addition to using technology, companies need to be prepared for crisis management. This means keeping good communication with suppliers, customers, and stakeholders during uncertain times. Companies that successfully navigate geopolitical issues often have plans for "what-if" scenarios, allowing them to adapt and find new solutions when challenges arise. In conclusion, geopolitical events have a major impact on global supply chains and logistics. Companies must constantly reassess their strategies to be successful in international trade. Being flexible, embracing new technologies, and maintaining clear communication with everyone involved are key for weathering the storms of political uncertainty. By integrating these elements, businesses can ensure their operations continue smoothly and even find growth amid challenges.
Emerging markets are becoming really important when we look at global currency trends and how they affect international business. Countries like Brazil, India, China, and South Africa are growing fast. This growth changes not just their local economies but also impacts how global currency markets work. As these countries join the global economy more, their money starts to matter in foreign exchange markets, changing trends that go far beyond their borders. One main way emerging markets influence global currency trends is by trading more. As these economies grow, they trade more with developed countries. This increase in trade raises the demand for their currencies, making them more valuable in the foreign exchange market. For instance, because China exports a lot, there is a greater demand for the Chinese yuan (CNY). When businesses trade more with China, the yuan gets stronger compared to other currencies, affecting global exchange rates. Emerging markets also attract international investors looking for new opportunities. Currency investments can be risky, but emerging markets often offer chances for higher returns. This can lead to a lot of money flowing into currencies from these countries. For example, currencies from Mexico and Indonesia can fluctuate based on how investors feel about the economy and political situations. When more foreign money comes into these markets, it can strengthen their currencies and cause significant changes in exchange rates, which also affects global currencies. Another important factor is monetary policy in these emerging markets. Central banks—these are the main banking authorities—often have different goals for inflation and the economy compared to banks in developed countries. For example, if Brazil’s central bank raises interest rates to tackle inflation, it can make the Brazilian real (BRL) stronger. Higher interest rates usually attract foreign investors looking for better returns. This can lead to big changes in the currency's value worldwide. Emerging markets have different ways of managing their money. Some countries use fixed exchange rates, while others allow their currencies to float freely. These choices affect how easily currencies can change based on market situations. For example, India's floating currency may see more ups and downs depending on real-time economic changes. On the other hand, countries with fixed currencies may keep their values stable but risk misaligning with the currencies they are tied to, which can impact trade and global currency trends. Political stability is also key in emerging markets. If a country faces political trouble, it can cause its currency to lose value due to increased risk. For example, Venezuela is experiencing a severe economic crisis that has led to its currency, the bolívar (VES), dropping dramatically. This decline not only harms the local economy but can also make investors nervous, often leading them to favor safer currencies like the US dollar (USD) during tough times. Moreover, the global economy is interconnected. What happens in one emerging market can affect others through trade and investments. If a big emerging market faces economic trouble, other nearby countries might experience similar issues, like losing foreign investment or seeing their currencies drop in value. This shows how important it is to keep an eye on economic indicators and policies in these countries, as local problems can shift global trends. In terms of trading, people often use information from emerging markets to predict currency changes. For instance, prices of goods like oil can impact countries rich in natural resources. When oil prices go up, oil-exporting countries often see their currencies strengthen. Traders also look at risks tied to politics, economic data, and central bank news in emerging markets to make smarter currency trading decisions. Businesses and investors involved in international trade need to stay updated on changes in foreign exchange policies from emerging markets. If a government decides to lower the value of its currency, it can significantly affect profits and risks for international companies. Thus, these businesses need strategies to protect themselves from currency changes that arise from emerging markets. Another important idea is dollarization. Some countries choose to use a stable foreign currency, like the US dollar, instead of their local money. They might do this because they don't trust their currency or want to stabilize their economy. This choice can create special situations for foreign exchange, connecting the local economy's health to how the foreign currency performs. Looking at how different currencies relate to each other helps us understand emerging markets' role in global currency trends. By analyzing these relationships, traders can spot patterns between emerging currencies and major currencies like the euro (EUR), British pound (GBP), or Japanese yen (JPY). These connections can change depending on economic news, which influences how investors act in the currency markets. In conclusion, emerging markets create a web of interactions that shape global currency trends. Factors like trade, investments, monetary policies, political stability, commodity prices, and currency relationships all connect to influence currency movements worldwide. As businesses and investors work through these changes, it’s crucial to stay informed about developments in emerging markets and how they can impact currency exchange and the larger global economy. Understanding these connections helps companies make smarter choices and better understand international business overall.
**Non-Tariff Barriers: A Hidden Challenge to Free Trade** Non-tariff barriers (NTBs) are a sneaky problem for Free Trade Agreements (FTAs). They can make international trade much harder than it should be. As I look into this topic for my studies in international business, I’ve noticed how these barriers can mess up trade relationships and weaken the idea of free trade. ### What Are Non-Tariff Barriers? In simple terms, non-tariff barriers are rules and policies that countries use to control what goods come into their markets. This includes things like quotas (limits on how much can be imported), licenses for importing, and health and safety rules. While these barriers might not seem as obvious as taxes on imports (tariffs), they can still be very limiting. They can slow down the movement of goods and create confusing rules that businesses must figure out. ### Types of Non-Tariff Barriers Here are some common types of non-tariff barriers: 1. **Quotas**: These limit how much of a product can be brought into a country. When quotas are too low, it can make products harder to find and more expensive. 2. **Licensing Requirements**: Some countries need special licenses for imports or exports. These licenses can be difficult to get, causing delays in trading. 3. **Standards and Regulations**: Countries often have different rules about product safety, quality, and labeling. This can force businesses to change their products or even make completely new ones to meet local laws. 4. **Subsidies**: Sometimes, a country will give money to its own businesses to help them compete better against companies from other countries. ### Why Are They a Hidden Threat? Non-tariff barriers are hard to see but can strongly affect trade agreements. While tariffs are clear costs that can be easily calculated, NTBs are usually found in the fine details of rules and regulations. Here’s why they are a big deal: - **Complexity**: The many rules can confuse businesses, especially smaller ones that don’t have enough resources to deal with them. This confusion can cause some businesses to leave the market or compete less. - **Inconsistency**: Different countries might enforce these barriers differently. This inconsistency makes it tough for businesses to know if they meet the standards required. - **Loss of Benefits from FTAs**: FTAs are meant to make trade easier by lowering tariffs. But if NTBs are still in place, the benefits may disappear. A country might cut tariffs, but having to deal with NTBs can make trading more costly and complicated. ### Real-World Implications From my studies and experiences, I’ve seen how NTBs can create serious barriers in international trade. For instance, a company trying to export food may take months to meet safety rules that differ a lot from one country to another. This can delay their products from getting to market and lead to missed chances and tense relationships with trading partners. Also, these barriers hit developing countries the hardest. Companies from these nations may struggle to meet tough standards from richer countries, widening the trading gap. ### Moving Forward To deal with NTBs, global leaders and organizations need to work together. They can help by agreeing on common standards and recognizing each other's rules. This way, we can create a fairer trading system that really encourages free trade and boosts economic growth. In summary, while we often focus on tariffs in discussions about trade, we can’t forget about non-tariff barriers. They are a real threat to the idea of free trade agreements. It’s important to address these challenges to help create a fair and competitive global market.
Balancing free trade and national interests can be tough, but it is possible! Here are some simple strategies to make it work: 1. **Selective Tariffs**: This means placing extra taxes on certain products coming into the country. This helps protect local businesses while still allowing free trade in other areas. 2. **Trade Agreements**: Countries can make deals with each other. These agreements can help them both without hurting local economies. 3. **Regulatory Standards**: Keeping strong rules about the environment and working conditions can help protect people and the planet. It can also support trade without completely cutting it off. Finding the right balance helps countries do well in the global market!
Trade policies are really important because they affect how countries buy and sell things with each other. These policies can be divided into two main types: **protectionism** and **free trade**. ### Protectionism - **What It Means**: Protectionist policies are rules designed to protect local businesses from competition from other countries. - **Examples**: - **Tariffs**: These are extra taxes on goods coming from abroad. They make foreign products more expensive, which helps local products sell better. For example, when the U.S. put tariffs on steel coming from other countries, local steel companies saw more sales. - **Quotas**: These are limits on how much of a certain product can be brought into a country. This helps local businesses stay competitive. ### Free Trade - **What It Means**: Free trade allows countries to trade goods and services without many barriers, like taxes or limits. This encourages companies to compete and come up with new ideas. - **Examples**: - Trade deals like NAFTA (now called USMCA) remove tariffs between member countries. This helps countries rely on each other and focus on what they do best. ### How It Affects Countries Trade policies can change how countries get along with each other: - They can create **alliances** when countries agree on similar trade goals. - They can also cause **tensions** if one country feels hurt by another's protective rules. A good example of this is the trade conflict between the U.S. and China, where new tariffs led to a back-and-forth that impacted businesses around the world. In short, knowing about trade policies is very important for understanding international business because they affect how countries access each other's markets and compete globally.